Decadence and occulture

This article contributes to the understanding of relations between occulture and Decadence in Finnish art at the turn of the twentieth century, focussing on occulture and Decadence in the works of the Finnish artist Oscar Parviainen (1880–1938). The aim is to understand what are the relations between Parviainen's art, the Decadent art movement and occulture, and what are the aspects and cultural phenomena of his time that share similar lines of thought as Parviainen? In which ways did Parviainen address questions of higher truths about human existence, and what kind of role did they play in his thinking?


Introduction
Oscar Parviainen  was a Finn ish artist whose career extended from the late 1890s to the early 1930s. Parviainen grew up in a wealthy and cosmopol itan family in Helsinki. Against his fam ily's expectations he started to pursue the career of an artist and studied at a number of art schools, the École des BeauxArts in Paris to name just one, but did not finish at any of them. Despite his notable edu cation, personal relationships with the art world elite, and his extensive production of interesting works, he never became a dis tinguished figure in the Finnish art scene or its arthistorical canon, which is partly a consequence of him hardly ever enter ing into exhibitions or selling his paint ings, combined with his tendency to stay for long periods of time abroad. All this -the travelling and a reluctance to sell his works, was largely made possible by family wealth and his inheritance. It is important to acknowledge here that he was not bound by the same economic realities as most art ists; also that his health was poor through out his life, due to inherited heart prob lems and chronic tendency to lung disease (Waenerberg 1996).
Parviainen's art was, especially during the 1910s, somewhat bleak, but also in some manner spiritual. This article tries to understand what aspects of culture might have affected this. Therefore, I will analyse Parviainen's art in the context of Decadence and occulture -the connection to these themes is in many cases the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788Schopenhauer ( -1860. It has been suggested that themes of death in Parviainen's work are influenced both by events in his own life and the prominent Symbolist painters that preceded him, but also by the philosophy of Schopenhauer (Waenerberg 1999 passim). Schopenhauer was one of the most important philoso phers to inspire Decadent artists and was one of the first western philosophers to come to similar conclusions as some east ern religions and is therefore relevant to the subject (see e.g. Pierrot 1981: 55-60). I will return to Schopenhauer later.
Parviainen is not known to have been involved in any esoteric movements. To what extent Parviainen was aware of eso teri cism and its most prominent move ments at the time, is unclear. As Annika Waener berg notes when mapping out Par viai nen's art's intellectual influences, Theo sophy was a common subject of conver sation among his close colleagues, such as the artists Bruno Aspelin  and Akseli GallenKallela (1865GallenKallela ( -1931 (Waenerberg 1996: 108), and, continu ing this thought, I must assume he was at least aware of them, on the basis that sim ilar lines of thought were so popular and widespread in turnofthecentury artistic circles, especially in Symbolism (see e.g. SarajasKorte 1966: 51-4;Lahelma 2018: 32-5). Nonetheless, because of the uncer tainty of his level of knowledge on the sub ject, specific movements or texts of esoteri cism are not the main focus of this article, which focuses on the concept of occulture instead.
With the term occulture I refer to a diverse milieu of spirituality that formed around esoteric discourses, as character ized by Nina Kokkinen in her disserta tion about occulture and modern spiritual ity in turnofthecentury Finnish art, and its three notable artists Hugo Simberg , Akseli GallenKallela andPekka Halonen (1865-1933) (Kokkinen 2019: 44). To be more precise, the con cept has been formed in the study of reli gion to emphasize the importance of the milieu which forms around groups that are typically more loosely formed and tend to have shorter lifespans. Such groups include not only esoteric communities such as the Finnish Theosophical Society or small groups gathering around Spiritualist séances, but also artistic circles such as the Zum schwarzen Ferkel which met in Berlin during the 1890s. In this milieu the esoteric discourses of higher knowledge and truth had a crucial significance (Kokkinen 2019: 44-52;Kokkinen 2013: passim).
Parviainen's artistic themes revolve around questions of life and death, love and agony, and the (spiritual) truths behind them. To understand these explor ations, it is useful to turn our focus away from mainstream religion, since it does not seem to explain Parviainen's art ad equately. Kokkinen notes that when esotericism is understood in terms of a set of dis courses considering the pursuit of higher knowledge and truth, artistic and scien tific conversations can be equally a part of it. Literature circulated and contrib uted to these discourses, and is therefore considered to be a constituent of occul ture (Kokkinen 2019: 52). This article will focus on such considerations by analysing Parviainen's art in the context of lines of thought such as Schopenhauer's pessimis tic philosophy, and the ideology and writ ings prevalent in artistic circles like the ones mentioned above.
As I will later show, Oscar Parviainen did seamlessly incorporate religious, sci entific, and philosophical ideas into his art. I present the connections between Parviainen's art and the ideas of esoteric movements where I see a strong enough resemblance, but even then, I do not claim there to be a direct link between them: he might have sourced the ideas indirectly or just copied them from elsewhere with out a clear understanding of their con nections to esotericism. When addressing larger questions, I will lean on the concept of occulture. Parviainen was part of these discourses; he was both influenced by them and a contributed to them himself.
'Decadence' , as in the Decadent art movement of the fin-de-siècle, and 'deca dence' as an adjective cannot really be separ ated, since the origins of the move ment intertwine with the discourse of decline in the late nineteenth century. In this article the terms are separated by use of the uppercase D when it refers to the phe nomenon in the arts. What is now known as Decadence was formed in European lit erature and spread to the visual arts before the century was over. Jean Pierrot (1981) summarizes the elusive nature of the aes thetic of Decadence in his The Decadent Imagination 1880-1900 as follows: It is based, firstly, on a somewhat pes simistic conception of human exist ence, seen as subject to the pitiless necessities of a physical, physiologic al, and social determinism that holds man in thrall to the laws of heredity, the species to those of evolution, and the exceptional individual to the law of the majority, decreed by democracy. Religious faith has ceased to be any thing other than a nostalgic memory; love is merely an unconscious subjec tion to an instinct aimed solely at the survival of the species. Nature, far from being the attentive and responsive wit ness conceived by the romantics, is an unfeeling and pitiless mechanism. The best thing for us to do therefore, sur rounded by such anguish and sadness, though not without a certain feeling of guilt, is to attempt to escape from that nature, to reject biological laws of our species as far is possible, and to hold ourselves aloof from society. (Pierrot 1981: 9-10) Even though Pierrot's understanding of Decadence is a bit outdated, it still serves as a good layout of its aesthetic. In a recent study, Nordic Literature of Decadence (Lyytikäinen et al. 2020), Decadence is understood as a 'constellation' of movements (situated between romanticism and modernism) which share some similar traits, such as an interest in decay and the endtimes and an antipathy towards mod ernity. By reject ing the idea of Decadence as a 'movement' per se, the study aims to understand the meaning of Decadence in a broader con text. It considers the sense of decay as the defining sensibility of Decadence. It also highlights three categor ies in Decadence: deca dent naturalism, 'core' decadence (i.e. Central European, canonized Decadence), and the 'afterlife' of these in later literature (ibid. passim) As my goal is to approach similar themes in Decadence and con sider Decadence in a similar manner, I adopt this approach in this article. In the case of the visual arts, this does not radi cally change the iconographic al under standing of Decadence from, for example, Pierrot's older and narrower definition, but has an important impact on the pos sibilities of conclusions. Furthermore, such wider understanding of Decadence is even more important in the field of visual arts, since its Decadence is such an abstract concept: it lacks -if we discount the two or three main artists, which hardly can be considered to amount to a canon -even a vague and arguable, but widelyknown lit erary canon, 'core decadence' as referred to above. To summarize my understand ing of Decadence then: firstly, I would pre sent it as a collection of countercultural features: it was antimodern, antinatural ist and against the bourgeoisie sensibility; secondly, as a phenomenon of culture, I do not consider it to be a movement, or artists simply either being or not being a part of it.
'Decadence' had an ambivalent mean ing in nineteenthcentury culture as well: on the other hand, it was a pejorative term, used to slander an opponent, but some took it proudly as their own. As mentioned above, where Decadence in literature is somewhat hard to pinpoint, this is even more so the case in the field of visual arts: often the themes familiar in Decadent lit erature are addressed in the visual arts as a part of Symbolism (Nissen and Härmänmaa 2014: 4-5). Some have stated that in lit erature Symbolism succeeded Decadence and others that Symbolism was the visual equivalent of Decadence (see e.g. Pierrot 1981: 5-9), but my attempt here is not to clarify the nature of their conjunction, but to address the questions stated abovetherefore I will maintain a wide perspective on what Decadence actually is; my under standing of it is both thematical, that is to say I consider Parviainen's art Decadent when I see thematical resemblances to Decadent literature in it, and theoretical, when I see a correlation between the causes of 'core Decadence' and Parviainen's art.
Pierrot's definition succeeds in grasping some aspects of the Decadent worldview, but when considering the influence esoteri cism had on Decadence, he undermines it, and states that esoteric movements were too vague and inconsistent to attract wide interest among decadent poets and, by implication, painters (Pierrot 1981: 117-18). As mentioned earlier, this is not the case. Per Faxneld, who has researched both Decadence and esotericism extensively, writes in his dissertation that the relation of the Decadent movement to religion is impossible to define as it varies greatly among the artists, and therefore needs to be addressed individually (Faxneld 2017: 261). This is what I aim to do in the case of Oscar Parviainen. Parviainen was reluc tant to consider himself as a participant of any particular movement or (what he per ceived as) style and said 'I do not under stand how someone could paint while being a part of some group with a coherent style' (Tirranen 1950: 253), 1 but as I will later show, the influence of the Decadent aesthetic is clear in his work. As already stated, his religious views are unknown, and there is no clear evidence of him being a part of any esoteric movement, but the influence of occulture will also be shown later. In addition to paintings, etch ings, and drawings, I will use some written material: Parviainen wrote poems, theatre scripts and aphorisms. He never published, or even finished, these writings, and only fragments of them have been preserved, therefore it is hard to say anything conclu sive about them. These materials are kept in Joensuu Art Museum, and since they are not systematically archived, I cannot pro vide proper references.
Salme SarajasKorte, a pioneer in stud ies in Finnish Symbolism, acknowledges Schopenhauer's influence in both French and German Symbolism, and by extension Finnish Symbolism, in her dissertation, and suggests that this is due to his pessimism, disdain of banalities, and high respect for artistic work (SarajasKorte 1966: 32). As Annika Waenerberg notes in her biography of Parviainen, he did read Schopenhauer (Waenerberg 1996: 108). In his main work The World as Will and Representation (first published in 1818) Schopenhauer pre sented a thoroughly pessimistic concep tion of the world, and of human existence, characterized by almost inescapable suffer ing. To briefly present Schopenhauer's basic ideas: in Schopenhauer's thinking, firstly, everything in universe is one and, sec ondly, everything in existence, from people to objects everywhere in the universe, is driven by a 'will to life' which causes humans to endlessly strive for things; that is, to do anything is to follow this 'will to life' . However, this striving never leads to satisfaction, since once a human achieves a particular goal, it immediately gets replaced by a new one. Often this striving is in contradiction with someone else's will to life, and therefore to strive is to reject someone else's will to life, and since every thing is one, anyone's suffering is everyone's suffering. Therefore, the inescapable 'will to life' causes suffering which can't be pre vented. One who lacks a goal to strive for gets bored, and in Schopenhauer's line of thought, to be bored is to suffer. However, art gives the opportunity to briefly escape this tormenting existence: Schopenhauer viewed great art, especially music, to be so powerful and captivating that it could occupy the human mind to the point that it would not have room for this 'striving' . As said, this has been seen as one of the key reasons why artists in the nineteenth century were so keen on Schopenhauer's ideas. Schopenhauer also set out a type of a person who would be free from this 'will to life': a 'sage' that would deny everything that has its roots in the 'will to life'-want ing, for example, good food, sexual rela tions, or wealth. This person would be in complete understanding of the situation explained above, and completely uninter ested in the suffering around them, since they would know that they cannot do any thing about it (for Schopenhauer's philoso phy see e.g. Wicks 2008: passim). As I will show in this article these ideas repeatedly present themselves in Parviainen's art.
Schopenhauer's influence in art is wide ly recognized, his influence on Richard Wagner (1813-83) being the most com monly cited example (see e.g. Karnes and Mitchell 2020: passim). Schopenhauer wrote somewhat specific articles on music and how it should be, not the visual arts, but nonetheless, his views influenced visual artists as well: as mentioned, he viewed art as a way to escape the torment of exist ence, so it is easy to understand why artists would be keen on him, since 'his philoso phy led to a morality based on salvation through art' (Pierrot 1981: 56). His pessi mistic philosophy can also be considered to be closely linked to the Decadent aesthetic and sensibility (ibid. p. 60). As already mentioned, this influence reached Finnish artists as well. Therefore, Parviainen's inter est in Schopenhauer is not an isolated inci dent, but a part of broader interest amongst artists of the turn of the twentieth century.
Schopenhauer has its connections to esotericism. Already in The World as Will and Representation (1819/1909), he had reached similar conclusions as the east ern trad itions and he acknowledged and em braced these similarities. As we know, many of the largest esoteric movements acknowledged eastern religious traditions as part of their doctrines. Robert Wicks has connected Schopenhauer's philosophy, especi ally the idea of the sage and ascetism, to the traditions of Christian Quiet ism, the Upanishads, and Buddhist ideas. To give some examples: Buddhism and Schopen hauerian thought share an idea of detach ment as enlightenment, and Quietism has similar idea of resistance of desire, but the fact is that Schopenhauer did not distin guish between these trad itions when refer ring to them (about Schopenhauer and eso tericism, see Wicks 2008: 127-41).
Furthermore, it may be considered that even his style of writing is esoteric in its manner (Head 2020: passim); or more precisely in the tradition of pedagogic al esotericism, that is, presented in such a way that something can be taught by first obscuring the answer and gradually reveal ing it to ensure the full and correct under standing (Melzer 2004: passim). This is a part of larger philosophical, theological and pedagogical discussion that there is no space here to address, but is referred to in order to illustrate how, as one notices when reading Schopenhauer, as a reading experi ence it can resemble that of reading a spir itual or religious text. However, the aim of this article is not to study Schopenhauerian thought itself, or its connection to esoteri cism, but to study how Oscar Parviainen might have incorporated it into his own thought and work. Schopenhauer can and should be seen as a part of occulture, -the milieu in which esoteric discourses were prevalent.
To summarize: above I have defined the context of this article; two phenomena rele vant for an understanding Parviainen's art, especially during the 1910s, namely, occul ture and Decadence. Neither of them has clearly defined delineaments, and should be understood to be discursive guidelines that presented themselves in the culture of the late 1800s. Next, I will present their presence in Parviainen's art -to do so I have outlined three categories, mostly just for the sake of a clear structure.

Death
As the culmination of decay, death is a key subject in Decadent art and, to be more specific, the death aesthetic -both the death of beauty and the beauty of death itself (Nissen and Härmänmaa 2014: 3). Death in Parviainen's art, one of his most common subjects, has been analysed in earlier research as being the consequence of influence from his Symbolist predecessors such as Hugo Simberg and Akseli Gallen Kallela, whom he admired greatly, and partly as contemplation of and response to his own poor health (Tirranen 1950: 251). Even though this is possibly partly true, seeing these works as merely mannerist copies of Symbolist art, which was in the 1910s already somewhat passé, or as just meditations on one's medical condition is surely a somewhat thin view.
Some of Parviainen's death composi tions, such as Skeleton Men (Döingarna, undated, Ateneum Art Museum), in which skeletons march like an army with skeleton dogs at their feet and playing violins are bleak and intimidating; but not all of them are so, such as the painting Crypt of the Capuchin Friars (Kapusinernas gravkammare, 1914, Joensuu Art Museum). Here we see an interior covered with skulls and four skeletons, two standing in dark brown robes and two lying in recesses in the walls, with two burning candles in front. It depicts the crypt beneath the Santa Maria della Concezione dei Cappuccini church in Rome, as can be discerned from the signa ture which also indicates 'Rome' . In Crypt of the Capuchin Friars the atmosphere is more serene. Nina Kokkinen has shown in her dissertation that monks were a some what common subject among Finnish Symbolists and were connected to the eso teric mentality: they were a part of an art ist's selfimage, as exemplified in works by GallenKallela and Simberg. The monk represented a truthseeking hermit, deeply focused on his work and above the banal ities of the common people -qualities that the artists wanted to see in themselves as artists (Kokkinen 2019: 123-33). I believe this to be also the case with Parviainenthe reason why he visited the crypt in Rome in the first place and why he painted this grand, almost threemetrewide painting.
We know that his artistic practice incor porated elements from this hermit ideal: during his most intense painting periods he secluded himself from others and worked manically day and night, secluding himself from social contact and daily life, much like the Capuchin monks. He also stated himself that painting should be done when 'the spirit takes over' ('andan faller öfver en') and only then. He also distin guished artists, himself included, that were 'dreamers and migratory birds' ('dröm mare, konst närer o snillrika flyttfåglar') from 'potato people' ('potatismänniskor na'), that failed to lift themselves any higher than the ground level (Waenerberg 1996: 40). Thus, this ideal of monks also starts to recall Schopenhauer's 'sage' , the pinna cle of human existence. In the third volume of The World as Will and Representation Schopen hauer states, when explaining im agin ation's value to a genius, that: 'The man who is endowed with imagination is able, as it were, to call up spirits, who at the right time reveal to him the truths which the naked reality of things exhibits only weakly, rarely, and then for the most part at the wrong time' (Schopenhauer 1909: 142). Parviainen seems to have shared this idea of how great art is produced.
Parviainen's artistic selfimage was formed of religious and mystical themes, mixed with bohemian elements that he encountered when studying in Paris during the first decade of the twentieth century (Waenerberg 1996: 41). In 1907 Parviainen moved to Båtstad on Lake Vitträsk, a secluded villa, with an atelier, some 30 kilo metres from Helsinki. The image of a her mitlike artist battling with grand questions was already how some of his contemporar ies saw him -in the 1930s he was described as a hermitartist who produced 'intoxicat ing night visions' (Waenerberg 1996: 110 in Crypt of the Capuchin Friars, where he chooses to express themes common in esotericism in terms of its bleakest, most decayed form, as dead brothers of the Capucian order, not as serene wander ing hermits and Jesuslike characters as had his Finnish predecessors and objects of admir ation such as GallenKallela and Simberg. One death motif stands out: a small drawing depicting a butterfly rising from its cocoon surrounded by human skulls. The work is titled The Symbol of Immortality (Odödlighetens symbol, undated, Joensuu Art Museum archives), and is accompanied by a poem: 'Death solves the dark riddle of life / Lets the soul rise free from its cocoon / mortals, stop crying / you will soon be but terflies yourself ' . 2 The theme of the draw ing is resurrection, but from what tradition it has been derived is unclear. Resurrection has its meaning in various religious doc trines, also in Christianity (see e.g. Fer guson 1981: 13). As the poem indicates, death is seen as a salvation, a thing that sets one's soul free from earthly boundaries and a reason why the living should not be wor ried, since death is inevitable but positive.
In her article about Parviainen's death motifs Annika Waenerberg notes that in Symbolism, and in the case of Parviainen, the Christian tradition does not solely suf fice as their explanation; one observation she makes on Parviainen's death motifs, which have their roots in dance macabre, is that the focus seems to shift from what is the destiny of all humans to how life is seen now, while it is happening: it seems to be a moral suggestion to live better by asking 'is this it?' (Waenerberg 1999: 98-107). The Symbol of Immortality seems to work in the same realm, it speaks directly to the living and reminds them to view their lives from the perspective of death -and find comfort in it. This is done by using the idea of meta morphosis, symbolized quite explicitly by a cocoon and a butterfly, presenting death as a transmutation into something better. The image is Decadent by nature: it pre sents a glorified and aesthetic death, and the poem, in which all mortals are crying helplessly, also seems reminiscent of a pes simistic understanding of human existence in the Schopenhauerian manner.
As we see from the examples above, Parviainen's death motifs have similarities with both the aesthetics and the worldview of Decadence and ideas common in eso tericism: they should not be understood as being expressions either of Decadence, esotericism, or mannerist Symbolism, but to incorporate aspects of them all. Some of Parviainen's visions of death and the skel eton men that bring it were horrible and took their inspiration from fear of death and war, but he also saw hope and beauty in it. It was a part of his selfimage, and also included a possibility of regeneration. For Parviainen death was deeply personal, both mysterious and horrible, yet also beautiful and liberating.

Sexuality
Parviainen's paintings which conjoin sex ual ity and suffering seem to clearly re call Schopenhauerian concepts. For Schopen hauer, love was a ruse of the 'will to life' to get people to reproduce as, clearly, no person in their right mind would take up caring for a child. To love and lust for someone was again just a thing to strive for, a manifestation of the 'will to life' and it would inevitably lead to disappointment. Therefore, to love is to be in a state of con stantly shifting between desire and being bored. Schopenhauer's ideology is known to have affected the Polish author Stanislaw Przybyszewski (1868-1927) (SarajasKorte 1966: 308), who was a key figure in Zum schwartzen Ferkel and was one of the most prominent diabolical figures of the fin de siècle (Faxneld 2012: 55-9). The way that Parviainen conjoins death and eroticism is similar to Przybyszewski's Decadent eroti cism; the themes themselves were not new at the time, since conjoining erotic female nudes with Death has been a wellknown motif since, for example, the sixteenth century German renaissance, where they served as vanitas themes and aimed to remind everyone of the evanescence of earthly beauty and pleasure -to give an example, the resemblance between Par vi ai nen's In Death's Grasp (Dödsgreppet, c.1906, Joensuu Art Museum) and Hans Baldung Grien's (1480-1545) Der Tod und Das Mädchen (1517, Kunstmuseum Basel) is apparent.
However, in the late nineteenth cen tury there was a widespread idea of an evil sexuality, of deviance and its dangers, that took the form of the femme fatale, and was deeply intertwined with the misogynis tic views and gender morality of European societies, Finland included (Välimäki 2019: passim), but here the focus is on the Decadents' interest on the motif of the dan gerous woman, death and eroticism as a component of their worldview, philosophy and aesthetics. As Per Faxneld argues, in Przybyszewski's system, women were the diabolical sex, the Devil, but in the positive sense. In his line of thinking, Satan and evil were progressive, and therefore the women that symbolized them had a positive mean ing. This was, among other things, a way to make it clear that they did not share the ideology of Christianity or the bour geois (Faxneld 2017: 320-5). Therefore, the Devil, and the women linked to it, could, in the context of Satanism and Decadence, be viewed as the basis of political state ments. Referring to Pierrot, Faxneld men tions that these gender views were inspired by the misogyny of Schopenhauer (and Baudelaire) (ibid. p. 269). Waenerberg mentions the gender norms of pessimistic philosophy as a source of inspiration for Parviainen (Waenerberg 1999: 103).
Schopenhauerian ideas, we know,  (Waenerberg 1996: 86). Parviainen produced several works with these themes. The End (Slutet, 1910, Joensuu Art Museum) depicts a naked young woman lying on a pedestal motion less and unconscious -dead, as the title suggests -surrounded by skeletons that seem to tend to the deceased. It is, firstly, a beautiful death, a painting that evokes the sadness and anguish caused by death, but also sensual lust. Secondly it is a picture about the death of beauty, a female figure objectified in a way reminiscent of the rot ting fruits found in earlier vanitas themes. The dagger in her hand, which is hardly vis ible but can be clearly seen in the sketches, reveals the woman to be a beautiful Death as well, a Death in female form. On the sur face, the painting seems to represent a deca dent Olympia, a modern demimondaine woman, but wrapped in death. A woman on the altar had already been depicted in turnofthecentury Satanic iconography: Felicien Rops's (1833-98) Le Sacrifice from Les Sataniques (1882) depicts this motif with a Satanic figure above her having intercourse. The altar has a female skel eton figure masturbating with bone, and there are two skeleton puttis flying above the woman.
A similar theme is presented in Joris Karl Huysmans's (1848Huysmans's ( -1907 La-Bas (1891), when Des Hermies, an acquaint ance of the protagonist Durtal, describes a black mass of medieval Satanism: 'On a table serving as tabernacle a woman lays down, naked or with her skirts lifted up over her head, and with her arms out stretched' , and continues to explain how the Sacraments were served on either the woman's abdomen or buttocks (Huysmans 2001: 54-6). Faxneld notes that the same theme is present in À rebours (1884) as well, when the protagonist Des Esseintes cites Oscar Parviainen, sketch to The End, c. 1910, drawing, Joensuu Art Museum. Photo: Mikko Välimäki. the fifteenthcentury book on witchcraft Malleus maleficarum (Faxneld 2017: 305). Parviainen's paintings do not quite reach the grotesqueness of Rops or Huysmans, but these or similar subjects -Decadent aesthetics -could explain this somewhat abnormal painting. As for Schopenhauer ian or Przybyszewskian ideas, The End cre ates them only in the audience, not in the paintings itself. The woman or the skele tons are neither in pain nor experiencing pleasure, but for the person watching it, it can induce both; it caters to the Decadent sensibility perfectly, not least because of its Satanic connotations which can be seen as part of occulture.
I understand Satanism here in the same sense as Per Faxneld when he speaks of it sensu lato: in his dissertation he states that 'Satanism' can be used either, in a strict sense, 'a system in which Satan is celebrated in a prominent position' , or in a broad sense (sensu lato) as a discursive strategy, as praise of various ideas, without forming the whole worldview or spirituality around Satan, even if making Satan a prominent figure. Faxneld also wants to exclude those who refer to or applaud Satan in a very sporadic manner (Faxneld 2017: 25). Even though there is no evidence that Parviainen was a Satanist in a strict sense, or even believed in such a deity, he can be consid ered a Satanist in a sense that he did repeat edly use the idea of Satan or Lucifer in his work. Satanism has its connections to both Decadence and esotericism. 3 Therefore, it is relevant to this article.

The relation between esotericism and
Satan ism has been debated and it can be ques tioned if Satanism should even be studied in parallel with esotericism. As this article's goal is to understand the occulture behind Parviainen's art, Satanism, that is an important part of this discourse in his case, should be taken into consideration.
Diabolical sexuality is a part of the etch ing Death Biting a Snake (Döden biter orm, 1904, Finnish National Gallery). The con nection to sexuality can be detected in the form of the snake, a symbol of sin as derived from Genesis and furthermore of the fille d'Eve, a concept in cultural history where all women could be seen as daughters of Eve and prone to the same kind of deviant tendencies (see e.g. Menon 2006: passim). In art history we see this in artwork where the Fall of Man theme has been reduced to a young naked woman and a snake, pos sibly without any other reference to the Bible; no tree or apple, in Finland (Välimäki 2019: 27-35). Parviainen's etch ing is an eclec tic mix of iconography in clud ing the skull from the vanitas themes and Symbolism and the snake from religious themes and its modern adaptations. The conclusion, however, is an etching with indi cations of pain, fear, salaciousness, and pleasure, all hallmarks of, for lack of a better expression, Satanic sexuality.
To give one more example, in Blindfold Game (Blindbock, undated, Joen suu Art Museum) a blindfolded satyr tries to catch the nymphs that surround him. Here the focus is not on death, but in an erotic game where the naked nymphs, which have strong seductive but also potentially dangerous qualities, tease the blindfolded satyr or Pan, characters closely related to Satanism and popular in, for ex ample, German Symbolism, Zum schwartzen Ferkel, and the art magazine Pan (Sarajas Korte 1966: 310-15). Here the sexual game is, in a very explicit manner, a shift between frustration and fulfilment. In this context, a relevant similarity can be found in the views of women laid out by Schopenhauer andespecially Karl Hartmann (1862-1906) -like Schopenhauer, a pessimistic philoso pher -who stated that women were driven by instinct, and that they were in essence merely a part of nature (about Parviainen's views on women and pessimistic philoso phy, see Waenerberg 1966: 183). In this context the nymphs of Blindfold Game would be symbols of women in this most primal state, teasing but not quite giving themselves to man -a symbol of sexual ity as intriguing but unsatisfying, much as Schopenhauer claimed it to be.
Lucifer was a rebellious figure both in Satanism and esotericism. For the Deca dents Lucifer was a figure of resistance against the banalities of modern life and the bourgeoisie, for the esoteric an opposi tion to God as traditional religions under stood the deity (Faxneld 2017: 255-6). A somewhat common idea has been that the Decadents used the image of Lucifer mostly to shock their audience, to tease the hated bourgeoisie, and that the idea of Lucifer as a benevolent figure of resist ance was not so important (ibid. p. 264). Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (1831-91), a key figure in modern esotericism and the cofounder of Theosophical Society, was one of the first to include an appraisal of Satan into esotericism in the same manner as had been done previously in the con text of literature and politics. By doing so she influenced greatly esoteric movements that formed Satanic doctrines after her. Faxneld mentions that also Przybyszewski was probably influenced by Blavatsky's notions of Satan (Faxneld 2013: 225). Therefore, when trying to map out the context of Parviainen's Satanic themes, we notice that in this case in some points, the 'decadent' and 'esoteric' influences, overlap. Faxneld concludes his article by noting that Blavatsky's 'Satanism' (he does not sug gest that she is a Satanist in a strict sense), even whilst being preliminarily religious, is filled with politic al implications and is a didactic man oeuvre (Faxneld 2013: 227). This would also include the same political strategies and ideas that Satan represents in Decadent form of thought.
There are a few explicit Satan figures in Parviainen's drawings, that did not lead to larger works. One is a drawing entitled Satan and God (Satan o Gud, undated, Joensuu Art Museum), that simply depicts the two characters next to each other. There are a few textual fragments concerned with the devil, for example one where the devil himself speaks: 'I am a ruler, a real King / a majesty ha ha ha, ha ha… ' . 4 In this and other text fragments the devil seems to be more like the character in Decadent litera ture than the benevolent rebel of doctrines of esotericism. However, when Blavatsky discusses Satan in the 'Secret Doctrine' she perceives Satan and God to be paral lel, 'twin brothers of the same mother' , and as inseparable -she does so by referring to, for example, Kabbalistic and old pagan ideas (Blavatsky 1888(Blavatsky /2019. The drawing by Parviainen, where the two enti ties, Satan and God, sit together, might be considered to include a similar thought: two figures in equality, no clear division of good or evil, just two sides of the same coin. The drawing Female Devil (Kvinno jävel, undated, Joensuu Art Museum) is minimal in content as well, but could have a connec tion to the gender views and Satanism of Przybyszewski. The naked female figure sits in a modern interior, and therefore could be understood as a modern woman, and not some mythological motif. The modern woman, sexuality and Satanic imagery is well presented also in the drawing Female Satyr on the Arm of an Armchair (Kvinnlig satyr på stol armen, undated, Joensuu Art Museum), where a naked woman with goat hooves sits in an interior, perhaps atelier or an art gallery where there are several draw ings or paintings on the wall behind her. From these two drawing we can conclude, that in some sense, Parviainen conjoined the figures of a woman and the Devil. There fore, Parviainen, Zum schwartzen Ferkel, Przybyszewski, and Huysmans had similar ideas on gender and Satanism.
I would suggest that as in the works of art presented above, Satan was a recurring and important figure for Parviainen. The Satanic themes were not the ones that he put on display for the general public, and therefore cannot be understood as a way to merely 'shock the audience' , but per haps more as way for himself to build his own identity, to separate himself from his background and to connect himself to the bohemian art scene. Soili Sinisalo has writ ten that 'He [Parviainen] tried in some manner to make his whole life as art. It was typical that his style of dress was pedan tic and attracted attention for its elegance and eccentricity. During the heat of July, he might be seen promenading in Helsinki in a white suit. When with his friends, he liked to wear oriental dresses' (Sinisalo 1980: 6-7, my translation). Here he reminds JorisKarl Huysmans's Des Esseintes, the protagonists of his book À rebours, and the archetype of a Decadent dandy (see e.g. Faxneld 2017: 270).

Apocalypse
Parviainen made several depictions of the end of the world. Their inspiration seems to come from the biblical stories, but also from the scientific discoveries of the nine teenth century. They manifest as fantastic al visions of the apocalypse, that have no explicit single origin, but many. The merg ing of the biblical and profane and the ancient and the modern are not uncom mon: Przybyszewski tied his Satanism to the theory of evolution and social Darwinism (Faxneld 2017: 267), and it has been argued that the whole idea of 'deca dence' can be traced to the natural sciences and to the philosophy of history (Morley 2004: passim).
The first of two largescale dystopian scenes is The End of the World (Vår jords slut, early 1910s, Joensuu Art Museum). Its subject is annihilation on a grand scale: there are two mountains in front, covered with yellowish human figures piling on top of each other and falling down the steep walls of the mountains into a red ocean of human figures at the bottom. The sea of corpses seems to continue beyond the hori zon. The yellow planet, presumably Saturn, shines in the sky. In a Christian context, the closest theme would be from the Book of , where the sea turns to blood, the biggest earthquake ever seen by man strikes, and the great city splits into three. This is the final destruction, the end of the world, an end stage before the Kingdom of Heaven that arises after the annihilation in the form of New Jerusalem; a sort of cleansing destruction, a manda tory stage of suffering on the road to hap piness. There were similar interests in eso tericism: reincarnation was an important part of development, and it required death in the process (e.g. in Theosophy see Boag 2011: passim).
Another painting with a connection to a biblical story is Paradise (Paradiset, 1910, Joensuu Art Museum), which combines the biblical paradise, the Garden of Eden, with the theory of evolution and reptiles. The painting depicts a wellkept garden, where two reptiles, perhaps dragons or dinosaurs, wander around. Parviainen had many paradise themes connected to the Book of Genesis, Adam and Eve and The Fall of Man, but this stands out, since it does not have any apparent link to the bib lical stories. However, such liberal depic tions inspired by biblical origins were quite common in Finnish Symbolism, and they had a connection to esotericism, Satanism and Decadent poetry, which I have no space here to discuss (see SarajasKorte 1966: 171-4). The aspect of occulture that I want to address here is that the painting seems to mix two rival explanations of human existence: the scientific and the religious. By replacing Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden with reptiles, Parviainen seems to side with the scientific version, or at least play with that idea. In Parviainen's notes there is a fragment about paradise where he reflects on how one cannot ever enter para dise, due to one's evilness, hatred, vengeful ness and so forth (Waenerberg 1996: 112-14). In his thinking people are not good enough to access paradise, and hence the paradise of his painting that has no people, only these peculiar reptiles, seems apt.
Struggle of the Last Men (De sista män niskornas kamp, 1914, Joensuu Art Museum) depicts a formation of somewhat abstract human figures rising from the ground and reaching to the sky from a blueish ground littered with bodies. From the sketches it comes apparent that it took inspiration from Gericault's Medusa's Raft: Gericault's and Parviainen's paintings have strikingly similar compositions, and the sketches even include the ship in the hori zon. However, Parviainen's finished work lacks the sea and the raft, and seems to have moved onto dry land. Therefore, it becomes more reminiscent of Edward Munch's many humanmountain themed works of art, linked with Friedrich Nietzsche's Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Waenerberg 1996: 115-18). Here one might find con nection to Schopenhauer and pessimistic ideology (since Schopenhauer's influence on Nietzsche is widely known), but since Parviainen's paintings do not really depict a mountain, and we do not know if he read Nietzsche, the analogy would rest on a weak basis.
A similar theme can be found in H. G. Wells's The Time Machine (1895), where at the end of the book the time traveller, after visiting the distant futures deeply deca dent remains of a failed society, ends up in the barren wasteland of an entropic end of the world. Wells's novel has been ana lysed as being inspired by the new discov eries in the field of thermodynamics, more precisely the inescapable heat death of the universe, where the expanding universe in which new energy, heat, is not being pro duced, eventually cools down to below life supporting levels (Tattersall 2014: 26-9). The landscape of this heat death in Wells's novel is a cool and slowed down seashore. It has a lot in common with the blueish agony of Parviainen's The Struggle of the Last Men. Therefore, if The End, or even Paradise seem more religious or spiritual, the Struggle of the Last Men seems secular. However, I suggest that occulture is a relevant con text for these three paintings too: so that we can understand the at first confusing mix of scientific, artistic and philosophic al influences mentioned above as a part of the same discourse of a pursuit of a higher understanding of fundamental truths of human existence. Kokkinen has noted that in fin-de-siècle occulture the borderlines between science, pseudoscience, knowl edge and belief were not understood in the same way they are today (Kokkinen 2019: 52). It seems that when forming his visions of the beginnings and the end of humanity, Parviainen took inspiration equally from science, and the fields that are now separ ated as science and pseudoscience.
To take Schopenhauer again into con sider ation, we notice that once more apo calyptic themes fit well into picture. Schopen hauer thought that nonexistence was better than existence, as he states in his chapter 'On the vanity and suffering of life' (Schopenhauer 1909: 382-402) -by impli cation, Schopenhauer seems to indicate that it would have been better if the world had never been originated. Parviainen's paintings do not necessarily celebrate the end, but neither does Schopenhauer: there is a difference in never having come to existence and in ending one's own exist ence. Nevertheless, some of Parviainen's paintings do include the liberatory aspect of the apocalypse that one would expect from a Schopenhauerian ending of every thing, and therefore it could be considered a factor in them. Furthermore, I would sug gest that the interest in both the apocalypse and Schopenhauer are coherent character istics in a person.
In the examples above I have shown that Parviainen's apocalyptic themes vary greatly in their content and possible ori gins. As they are quite uncommon in Finnish art, and seem to lack apparent text ual or visual origins, we should consider their connection to Decadent art move ment and its influence. These Decadent visions might well have a connection to ideas common in esotericism and even more so to scientific and philosophic al ideas of the late nineteenth century. It seems that both the death motifs as well as the apocalyptic themes can be interpreted as contemplations on the possible cathar tic dimension of death. Perhaps the artist looked to derive comfort from these sub jects in his own personal struggle with his health, but they took a somewhat grim form because of the Decadent quality of his psyche. All in all, occulture seems to be a useful concept when trying to understand Oscar Parviainen's work.

Conclusion
At first, I expected to find the reason for the 'inexplicable' spirituality in Parviainen's art from some particular esoteric movement, but this turned out not to be the case. Or at least I did not find clear connections. However, the concept of occulture seemed to be more useful: Parviainen's spiritual themes were influenced by, and contrib uted to, the esoteric discourses of his time. The philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer and Satanism, particularly as manifested in the Decadent art movement, are a relevant context, and a large component of the spir itual level of his paintings and etchings.
The relationship between Decadence and occulture is not a simple one. Occulture refers to the milieu formed around esoteric discourses of higher truth and wisdom, whilst Decadence is best described as a sensibility concerning certain themes and the constellation of movements that shared them. Therefore, in some sense they are similar: noncoherent groups of people that share an interest in a higher understanding of the world around them. Yet, Decadence must be understood from the viewpoint of the European artistic tradition of the 1800s, and occulture as a methodological appar atus designed to study the spiritual land scape of a given entity. Therefore, the simi larities, although useful, can be misleading when applied as closely as I have done in this article.
In Parviainen's art Schopenhauer's phil osophy seems to be a recurring factor and a relevant context as an underlying concept of human existence that influences works of art that connect with both Decadence and the spiritual. These manifest them selves most prominently in works depict ing death, sexuality, and the apocalypse. To claim Parviainen's art is influenced by Theosophical or other esoteric movements directly, a more thorough knowledge of Parviainen's firsthand knowledge of them should exist. Perhaps they were not com pletely alien to him, as they had such a prom inent position in his context, but ana lysing individual works of art from a theme derived from texts of esotericism is purely hypothetical. In a broad sense, I believe this article demonstrates that Parviainen's work very likely includes an influence of esoteri cism, whether this came to him directly through its texts, or through the influence of his associates.
Furthermore, even if the Decadent is easier to pinpoint, it cannot be separated from the spiritual and religious contem plations that can be repeatedly seen in his work, well exemplified in Crypt of the Capuchin Friars. Decadence and many of its themes have a spiritual dimension -death can hardly be romanticized with out including some sense of spirituality, as at least Parviainen did when he included meta morphosis, personification of Death, and the afterlife. Decadence and esoteri cism share similar themes, and the same art historical subjects and iconographic al themes are used to treat both interests, quite clearly presented in Parviainen's death motifs. Typically, the motifs in this article also serve as ways to build an artistic identity: an exceptional genius, bohemian and more than usually capable of tran scendental contemplation, who rises above the masses and the bourgeoisie. Since Parviainen uses Decadent iconography to address life's biggest questions (life and death, life after death, the essence of humanity, love, suffering, and himself and his place in the world) I would consider its use as somewhat hallow. In several cases, Zum schwartzen Ferkel, Stanislaw Przybyszewski, and Satanism seem relevant in the case of Oscar Parviainen and Finnish Decadence in general.
As shown above, even though I have mainly focused on deconstructing the themes of Parviainen's art, and separating their connections to Decadence, occulture and esotericism -categorizing that might seem trivial -this article contributes to the understanding of how these phenomena are intertwined, how it can be studied, and what are the possible themes that can be assumed to have these connections.  Mikko Välimäki, MA, is an art historian and a doctoral student in the University of Helsinki. His doctoral thesis considers the Decadent art movement in Finland, and notions of decline in Finnish culture. The main focus of his research is on the history of ideas, cultural history and the domin ant morals of Finnish society at the turn of the twentieth century.