Iskos is an international archaeological journal series published by the Finnish Antiquarian Society since 1976. It includes dissertations and other monographs, conference papers and results of research projects. The publication is openly accessible on the Journal.fi platform immediately after its release. Iskos uses the peer-review label of the Federation of Finnish Learned Societies and is currently rated in Jufo category 1 of the Publication Forum.
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Sven-Donald Hedman, Archaeologist and Friend
M. A. Castrén and his Archaeological Research in Russia and Siberia
The Finnish researcher Matthias Alexander Castrén (1813–1852) carried out several excavations and archaeological surveys during his expeditions through Lapland, northern Russia, and southern Siberia between 1838 and 1849. This article presents a preliminary overview of his fieldwork, methods, and scholarly background in archaeology. Castrén represented a holistic view of cultural research, but showed signs of growing independence of its different realms. Castrén had adopted a view of stratigraphy and an idea of a sequence of different successive periods. On the other hand, his documentation could not compete with the most advanced archaeologists of his time. Castrén’s archaeological results soon became outdated, but he provided an important pattern for future generations during the next hundred years.
Metal Detecting and Archaeology in Finland: An Overview of the Hobby and its Consequences
Metal detecting seems to affect Finnish archaeology in many ways at present and gives rise to new issues. Every year, ordinary people locate plenty of finds and find spots with their metal detectors and report them to archaeologists. This results in new knowledge of the past, and sometimes the detector find may be of great significance. However, there are also discoveries that people never report. Furthermore, metal detector users sometimes damage archaeological sites and monuments protected under law. This causes the loss of important information about archaeological sites and finds. In general, metal detecting as a hobby has increased significantly during the 2010s in Finland. I am therefore compiling an overview of the hobby using data available from an online survey and other statistics of the National Board of Antiquities. In addition, I aim to figure out the impacts of the hobby especially from the viewpoint of archaeology and archaeologists. As one conclusion, I present that interaction and cooperation between archaeologists and detectorists seems to lead the way to more responsible metal detecting and a greater understanding concerning archaeological heritage.
Archaeological Studies of St Petersburg by the Institute for the History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences
During recent years, researchers from the Institute for the History of Material Culture (IHMC) RAS conducted a series of large-scale archaeological investigations in St Petersburg, Russia. The volume and character of these investigations varied from archaeological supervision of earthworks to large excavations. They have yielded valuable information on the presence, situation, and type of cultural layers within the area of the city and Leningrad oblast, as well as on the tragic fate of the first builders of St Petersburg. These studies, in addition, provided more exact historical data on town planning in the city. The archaeological investigations were conducted at about 100 points within the territory of St Petersburg and its surroundings. This short paper presents an account of some of the most important investigations.
The Early Stages of the History of Vyborg: The Results of Archaeological Research 1998–2012
The article describes the archaeological excavations in the medieval town area of Vyborg, conducted since 1998 by the archaeological expedition of the Institute for the History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The total excavated area currently exceeds 600 square metres. Systematic archaeological research of intact layers is a novelty in the town. According to our experience, the old centre of the town is very rich in medieval and early post-medieval layers with well-preserved construction remains and artefacts. The most visible and dominant single element in the medieval infrastructure of the town was the town wall, built of grey stone. The excavations provide adequate proof supporting the a priori assumption that rocky and hilly topography has strongly guided the development of early urban and urban infrastructure in Vyborg through the centuries. Artefacts tell about the economy and standard of living in the town. The lively trade brought welfare and the material culture was similar to what is found in other international harbour towns around the Baltic Sea.
Built of Wood and Turned to Soil: Perspectives of Research History and New Observations Concerning Finland’s Oldest Churches with Reference to Ristimäki in Ravattula
A few years ago, the remains of Finland’s oldest identified churches were still dated to the 1230s. Since the founding of parishes was dated to the early 13th century, these remains were associated with the period of ecclesiastical organisation. In 2013, the well-preserved stone foundation of a church presumably built already in the 12th century was excavated in south-western Finland. Located in the middle of an inhumation cemetery, this building was associated with the ecclesiastical activities of the period of missionary activity in Finland and may have been the church of a village or locality used by a community smaller than later parishes. Also two previously known foundations of belfries from two separate inhumation cemeteries may date from this period of transition from the Iron Age to the Middle Ages. Because very little is known about the remains of early churches, the new finds discussed in this article provide considerable additions to our view of the early ecclesiastical culture of Finland.
The Karelian Culture after the Crusade Period
The Crusade Period (ca. AD 1050–1300) is widely considered as the period when ancient Karelia flourished. There are, however, many unanswered questions regarding its chronology, especially during the later stages of the period. From an archaeological point of view, the Middle Ages (ca. AD 1300–1500) have remained very poorly visible, and our understanding of the period has been based almost totally on written sources – which are very few in number. Especially the material culture of rural areas – where the vast majority of people lived – has been poorly understood. Recent results of archaeological studies show that several of the classical artefact types of the Karelian culture were still used in the Middle Ages. The cultural continuation is even more obvious in the form of some archaeological sites, most notably cemeteries. It is fair to state that the Karelian culture of the Crusade Period still prevailed during the first century of the historical era. Especially in Käkisalmi Karelia, there is a degree of continuation of material culture until the 17th century. At the same time, the major changes that are present in the medieval written sources are not very visible in the archaeological record.
Two Burial Traditions of the Crusade Period on the Karelian Isthmus and in Ladoga Karelia
The Ladoga Archaeological Expedition of the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (Kunstkamera; MAE) RAS, St Petersburg, jointly with the University of Turku (Finland), has recently excavated several funerary sites on the Karelian Isthmus and in the Ladoga Karelia region. The materials yielded by these investigations enable the reconsideration of information from previous excavations. Among the recent exceptional finds are the burials on the slopes of the Sänkinmäki and Pihlajamäki hills in the northern extremity of the island of Kilpolansaari. The material from these sites, as well as radiocarbon dating, demonstrates that in the 13th century, a part of the medieval Karelian population, at least in the Ladoga Karelia region, continued to practise archaic rites that included cremations on the ground surface.
The People of Vod’ and its Culture in Novgorod State
Russian chronicles know two Finnic peoples at the north-western outskirts of Rus – the Ests or Estii (Chud’) and the Vods (Votes – Vod’). The Chud’ are mentioned as early as in the undated part of the Russian Primary Chronicle (Povest’ Vremennykh Let), while the name of Vod’ has been known since 1069. Telling about the events of the 13th century, the chronicler clearly distinguishes between these two Finnic ethnic groups. The language of the Vods was relatively close to the northern dialect of the Estonian language. Beginning from the 19th century, scholars tried to identify the borders of the region occupied by the Vods. Many scholars supposed that this tribe settled vast territories in the north-west of Russia. Such conclusions were based on the fact that the so-called Vodskaya Pyatina (pyatinas were administrative districts of Novgorod the Great in the 15th and 16th centuries) was located in the same vast territory. During the last decades, new material has come to light that enables us to speak more accurately about the region settled by the Vod’ in the Middle Ages. The study of written, ethnographical, and archaeological sources allows us to draw the conclusion that the territory of Vod’ stretched from north-eastern Estonia along the Gulf of Finland to as far as the fortress of Koporye and its surroundings. Ancient stone cemeteries dated to the beginning of the 1st millennium AD have been found here. According to their burial rite and grave goods, they look like the so-called tarand grave cemeteries of north-eastern Estonia. Sometimes such cemeteries included graves dated from the 12th–13th centuries to the 18th century. Some elements of the dress of Vodian women found in these graves are very typical: a headdress with ornaments of seed-beads, cowrie shells and bronze mounts, and specific breast decorations (the so-called müätsi and rissiko). In 2009, in the region of the Vodian cemeteries near the village of Val’ya, a bronze cauldron was found containing parts of an ethnographic woman’s dress dated to the 17th century. A characteristic cloth apron was preserved best. The study presented here shows that from ancient times, the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland was settled by Finnic tribes that we know in the late medieval period under the names of the Ests and Vods. In terms of material culture, the populations living to the east and west of the Narva River resembled each other. Afterwards, the differences between their material cultures gradually increased. The people to the east of the Narva River acquired special features in their material culture and language and came to call themselves Vatialaset or Waddjalaiset (the Vod’ of Russian chronicles).
Kola Oleneostrovskiy Grave Field: A Unique Burial Site in the European Arctic
The Kola Oleneostrovskiy grave field (KOG) is the main source of information for the physical and cultural anthropology of the Early Metal Period population of the Kola Peninsula and the whole northern Fennoscandia.1 Excavations were conducted here in 1925, 1928, 1947–1948, and 2001–2004 by A. Shmidt, N. Gurina, and V. Shumkin. Altogether 32 burials containing the remains of 43 individuals were investigated. During the excavations, also remains of wooden grave constructions were found. The site is exceptionally rich in burial goods, including numerous bone, antler, stone, ceramic, and bronze items. Grave goods differ slightly between male and female burials. There is some evidence of long-distance contacts between the local population and southern and western Scandinavia, most notably in the chemical composition of bronze items and in some types of bone tools. Anthropological data, including the analysis of paleoDNA, suggests that people from geographically more eastern areas took part in the genesis of the ancient population of the northern Kola Peninsula. These people belonged to a specific physical type associated with modern Siberian anthropological groups.
Early Metal Age Dwellings in Eastern Lapland: Investigations of the Kola Archaeological Expedition (IHMC) in 2004–2014
After 10 years of field investigation by the Kola Archaeological Expedition (Institute for the History of Material Culture, Russian Academy of Sciences; IHMC RAS) it is now evident that a single archaeological culture (phase) prevailed on the Arctic coast from Tromsø (Norway) to Yokanga (Russia) during the Younger Stone Age and Early Metal Period. A close similarity between the assemblages of this culture is recognised in stone and bone artefacts, as well in dwelling constructions. This paper presents the results of the fieldwork in 2004–2014 and discusses the dwellings excavated at the Zavalishina 5 site.
The Inland Sámi Societies of Northern Fennoscandia during the Late Iron Age and Early Medieval Period: An Archaeological Approach
This article explores the archaeological features of the inland Sámi societies of northern Fennoscandia in the Late Iron Age and early medieval period (ca. 700‒1300 CE). The traces of Late Iron Age and the early medieval dwelling sites of inland northern Fennoscandia are primarily rectangular hearths. The distribution area of the rectangular hearths is wide, from southern Norway and central Sweden to north-eastern Finland and Norway. A dwelling site most often comprises a row of hearths. The change in location of the dwelling sites occurred in approximately 700 CE, when sites began to be located near bogs, small lakes, and small rivers, in a completely different environment than earlier. The rectangular hearths are generally located in pine forests or birch forests. The bone material connected to the rectangular hearths primarily indicates wild reindeer hunting or reindeer herding. Good contact networks and long-distance travel could maintain the similarities of the societies in different sections of the area.
A New Group of Tarand Graves in the South- Western Part of Leningrad Oblast
During recent years, a new group of tarand graves was discovered on the Izhora Heights (south-western Leningrad oblast). The majority of them are dated to the Early Roman Period. In total, 15 sites and find spots have been reported. In 2008–2013, the present author conducted excavations at two burial grounds with tarand graves – Kerstovo 1 and Malli. This study discusses the evidence on the burial rite and funerary structures at these cemeteries. Typical groups of grave goods have been identified from the sites on the Izhora Heights and linked with particular chronological spans from the Early Roman Period to the Merovingian Period. The tarand graves of the Roman Period represent a local variant that finds its closest parallels at sites in north-eastern Estonia. The particular peculiarity of this group of cemeteries arises from the fact that they are geographically isolated and contain numerous weapons and objects imported from the more eastern regions of the Finno-Ugric world. The sites of the Late Roman Period and the Migration Period have yielded only individual finds. The Merovingian Period is best represented by the finds from the cemetery of Malli. The closest parallels for these finds are found among the synchronous antiquities of Estonia.
Stone Age and Early Metal Period Archaeology and Settlement Patterns in the Lake Pyhäjärvi Micro-Region, Karelian Isthmus, Russia
Recent Finnish-Russian research cooperation on the Karelian Isthmus, north-west Russia, has completely changed views on the area’s prehistory. In this paper we describe the methodology and results of archaeological field surveys and test excavations carried out in the so-called Lake Pyhäjärvi micro-region in 2005–2008. In the course of the project’s field studies, the number of Stone Age and Early Metal Period sites in the area increased tenfold, and the exceptional, well-stratified settlement site of Kunnianniemi with nearly three-metredeep archaeological deposits was located. Recent studies provide reference material for the recently studied nearby areas and a working framework for further inquiries related to, for instance, the spatio-temporal changes in the settlement pattern, material culture, subsistence base, socio-cultural structure, and contact networks.
Stone Age Research in the Narva–Luga Klint Bay Area in 2005–2014
The Narva–Luga micro-region, situated on the border of Estonia and Russia in north-eastern Europe, has been the target of international and interdisciplinary research conducted annually between 2005 and 2014. During this time, altogether 42 new archaeological sites have been discovered, and many sites have also been excavated – in addition, a large amount of natural scientific data has been collected. All in all, over 60 Stone Age and Bronze Age sites are currently known in this micro-region. The sites date mostly between the late 6th and late 3rd millennia calBC, that is, to the cultural contexts of Narva Ware, Comb Ware, and Corded Ware. In this paper, some of the main results of the archaeological studies made during the last decade are briefly summarised.
New Evidence of the Fishing Economy of Stone Age Waterlogged Sites in Central and North-Western Russia: The Example of Zamostje 2
Investigations of Stone Age waterlogged sites in eastern Europe pose a great scientific interest due to the excellent preservation of organic materials. Excavations of settlements like Sārnate, Zvidze (Latvia), Šventoji (Lithuania), Purkajasuo (Finland), and Okhta 1 (Russia) are among the best examples of such research. New investigations in 2010–2013 at the peat-bog site of Zamostje 2 (Sergiev Posad district, Moscow region, Russia) were of special interest thanks to the discovery of a specific fishery zone dated to the Late Mesolithic–Early Neolithic periods. Several constructions made of wood were found in this particular part of the settlement: among them two fish traps made of wooden splinters and bound by common reed tapes, mobile fish screens, and 150 wooden piles. These finds, along with wooden, bone, antler, and pine bark artefacts (fish hooks, harpoons, floats, fishnet knots, paddles, etc.) allow us to state that fishery was a basic economic activity at this site. This statement is further supported by a large number of finds, including fish bones and fish scales, found in relevant cultural layers. Similar fishing constructions have been found recently at other sites in European Russia, too. In this article, we present main elements of the fishing economy at Zamostje 2 and some newly-found materials from other sites in central and north-western Russia. We also propose a typology for wooden fishing structures and outline some patterns of fishing strategies for this territory in the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods.
Recent Archaeometric Artefact Studies at the University of Helsinki
In recent years, a multi-method research environment for materials science artefact studies has been established at the University of Helsinki. A variety of inorganic archaeological materials, including ceramics, plasters, glass, glazes, metals, and sediment samples, has been subjected to archaeometric examinations and geochemical analysis by employing different analytical techniques, such as scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS), particle induced X-ray emission (PIXE), and portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (pXRF). The analysed materials derive from archaeological contexts both in Finland and abroad, and the analytical work relates to various multidisciplinary national and international collaborative projects. Foreign materials, especially from Sweden and Estonia, have been sampled as comparanda for Finnish archaeological finds to carry out interregional comparative analyses for artefact provenancing purposes. The nature of these geochemical studies varies from multi-site provenance-driven investigations to rapid qualitative tests of stray and metal detector finds. This article offers an overview of the archaeological results and the recent methodological developments in archaeometric artefact studies at the University of Helsinki.
Prehistoric sites preserved in the waterlogged environments of northern Europe, the Baltic region, and Russia possess a number of common features related to the specifics of their locations in prehistoric times and the later conditions of their preservation. The lake settlements of the forest zone of European Russia did not undergo any drastic changes in their economy based on hunting and fishing during most of the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. The importance of fishing can be understood by studying the remains of wooden items from such sites, which include utensils like paddles, floats, and nets, as well as fish traps and other fishing constructions. The comprehensive analysis of wooden artefacts enables not only a detailed reconstruction of woodworking traditions and techniques at the sites, but also the reconstruction of the surrounding landscape, as exemplified by recent studies made at the Zamostje 2 site (Sergiev Posad district, Moscow region, Russia). This article presents the results of these studies. The assemblage of wooden artefacts – with more than 300 items – and fishing structures (fish traps, weirs, and fish screens) found at the Zamostje 2 site currently represents a unique opportunity to assess not only the role of wood in hunter-fisher societies during the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods in the forest zone of eastern Europe, but also the scientific potential of this fragile find material category.
Quantifying Mineral Raw Materials in Neolithic Knapped Tool Production in the Lake Saimaa Area, Finnish Inland
In Finland, the Neolithic period begins with the appearance of ceramics ca. 5200 calBC and ends at the beginning of the Bronze Age ca. 1800 calBC. The co-occurrence of widespread and abundant flint import and Typical Comb Ware pottery (3900–3400 calBC) has been recognised since the very early days of Finnish archaeology, but so far, only one study has quantified the volume of Neolithic flint import to Finland. In general, the exploitation of domestic lithic raw materials has not been quantified at all. The present study provides an overview of the main trends in the use of mineral raw materials that were exploited in knapped tool production during the Neolithic in the Lake Saimaa area, Finnish inland. Firstly, the results show temporal and spatial variation in the selection of raw materials. As expected, the linkage between the heyday of flint import and Typical Comb Ware pottery is clearly visible. Moreover, during the span from the beginning of the Neolithic to the end of the Typical Comb Ware period, the utilisation of high-quality quartzes was very high. On the contrary, the latter part of the Neolithic was completely dominated by the exploitation of vein quartzes. The results also indicate spatio-temporal changes in the used reduction techniques, as well as in the reduction sequences present at the studied sites.
New Stone Age Sites to the North of Lake Ladoga in Karelia, Russia
In 2012, the Museum of Lahti and the Museum of Petrozavodsk completed a joint archaeological field project, begun in 2008, in present-day Russian Karelia for the purpose of studying the oldest postglacial settlement of the area between Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega. During the five field seasons, altogether 19 new Stone Age sites were found. Test excavations were carried out at five sites. The finds consisted mostly of burned bone and flakes of quartz and other lithics. The oldest site was found in Harlu at the mouth of the Jänisjoki River, with a dating of ca. 7760 calBC.
Finnish-Soviet/Russian Scientific Cooperation in Archaeology: Results of the Journey 1969–2014
After World War II, a Committee for Cooperation in the Fields of Science and Technology between the USSR and Finland was founded in 1955, based on an agreement between the two countries. The committee included a working group for archaeology, founded in 1969, which provided an operational environment for scholarly cooperation: symposia, projects, exchange of researchers, and so on. In Finland, the working group operated within the frame of the Committee for Cooperation in the Fields of Science and Technology of the Foreign Ministry, while in the USSR it operated under the Academy of Sciences. The activities were planned in the sphere of the history of the Finno-Ugrian peoples and their relations with the Slavs, as well as investigations into the ethnogenesis of Slavs, Finno-Ugrians, and Balts in the 1st millennium AD. Also the subject of Russian-Finnish relations in the 8th–14th centuries was involved. The breakdown of the USSR in 1991 terminated the strictly institutional model of cooperation. The Committee for Cooperation in the Fields of Science and Technology between the USSR and Finland, as well as the working groups, were dissolved in 1992. A new organisation, the Commission for Scientific and Technical Cooperation between Finland and Russia, was established. The new situation provided opportunities for a new kind of activity based on a broader multi-disciplinary concept, while, on the other hand, the financing of symposia and other activities met with difficulties because there were no longer any established channels for financing. However, the Academy of Finland and the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) took care of the exchange of researchers between our two countries for some time and also provided funds for one symposium held in Helsinki. After 2004, there was a 10-year break in the tradition, as the Finnish party could not arrange a symposium because of various difficulties. Finally, in 2014, a 14th symposium was arranged in Helsinki. This article summarises the activities connected to the archaeological cooperation referred to above.
Burials at the End of Land - Maritime Burial Cairns and the Land-Use History of South-Western Uusimaa
The maritime landscape of Uusimaa has been quite an unknown territory for archaeologists up to recent years. Only the archipelago of Ekenäs in the western part of the area was surveyed extensively before the year 2002. In this article recent research is presented. The focus is on the most maritime area between Hanko in the west and Espoo in the east. The viewpoint is from the sea, meaning that the relationship between the burial cairns and the maritime environment is especially emphasized, but the larger geographical context is not forgotten, either. Another important aspect is the perspective of the landscape. How are the sites located in the landscape and what meanings can be derived from the patterns in the landscape? Questions about the chronology of erecting cairns in the maritime zone will be discussed - when did the phenomenon start, how long did it continue, and when did it end? The main question is: How do the spatial and morphological patterns of the burial sites and stray finds reflect secular land use?
From Forest to a Farmland. Palaeoenvironmental Reconstruction of the Colonization of Western Uusimaa
According to the traditional hypothesis formulated on the basis of earlier archaeological and historical records, it was not until between the 12th and 14th centuries, when Swedes colonised the new areas in the northeastern side of the Baltic Sea. In order to investigate this hypothesis and the settlement history of Uusimaa, the pollen analytical results from altogether six continuous sediment cores from small lakes are presented. Former pollen analytical studies in the southern coastal areas provide important reference material. In the pollen data, after the isolation of the lakes, the earliest phase of land use extends from the Pre-Roman Iron Age (500 BC - AD 1) through the Early Roman Iron Age (AD 1 - 200) until the end of the Late Roman Iron Age (AD 200 - 400). This period of land use can be described as forest clearing associated in some places with sporadic, small-scale cultivation. Intensification of land-use practices is recorded from the beginning of the Migration Period (AD 400 -600). Among the six study sites, there is evidence for continuous rye cultivation from AD 390 - AD 440 onwards on the large maritime island of Orslandet (Ingå) and also in the more coastal environment in Prästkulla (Ekenäs in Raseborg). A fully agrarian landscape with permanent settlements, cultivated fields, and pastures becomes observable in the southern coastal areas gradually. Among the six studied cultural sites, this is first demonstrated on the archipelagic island Orslandet from as early as AD 670 onwards. In most study sites, there is evidence for permanent settlement and a fully agrarian landscape from AD 940 - 1100 onwards.
Shore Displacement in Western Uusimaa 500 BC-AD 1500
Numerous shore displacement studies have been completed in Finland, but the shore displacement history regarding the last four millennia is still poorly investigated. In this study, the shore displacement history of the coastal area of Western Uusimaa, in southern Finland, is reconstructed especially for the period 500 BC-AD1500. The isolation of 17 basins located in five areas (Kirkkonummi/Espoo, Orslandet (Ingå), Älgö (Ekenäs in Raseborg), Tenala (Raseborg) and Prästkulla (Ekenäs, Raseborg)) is determined. The methods include lithostratigraphic interpretation, diatom analyses and radiocarbon dating. The shore displacement history varies within the Western Uusimaa area. The highest ancient shoreline representing sea-level at 500 BC is about 8.5 m above present sea-level (a.s.l.) in Prästkulla, and 6.5 m a.s.l. in Kirkkonummi. In other areas, the shoreline representing this time falls between these elevations. The shoreline representing sea-level at AD 500 is 1-1.5 m a.s.l. in Western Uusimaa. These differences in shore level elevations are due to differences in isostatic uplift rates, which are slower in the east. The main trend in relative shore displacement along the southern coast of Finland is characterised by a generally decreasing uplift rate during the last 3500 years. I is not possible to detect any clear sea-level transgressions during this investigated period. The available data suggests possible local land uplift anomalies in the study area, but more investigations are needed to verify these results.
The Finnish Archipelago Coast from AD 500 to 1550 - a Zone of Interaction
New archaeological, historical, paleoecological and onomastic evidence indicates Iron Age settlement on the archipelago coast of Uusimaa, a region which tradiationally has been perceived as desolated during the Iron Age. This view, which has pertained to large parts of the archipelago coast, can be tracked back to the early period on field arhcaeology, when an initial conception of the archipelago as an unsettled and insignificant territory took form. Over time, the idea has been rendered possible by the unbalance between the archaeological evidence and the written sources, the predominant trend of archaeology towards the mainland (the terrestical paradigm), and the history culture of wilderness. Wilderness was an important platform for the nationalistic constructions of early Finnishness. The thesis about the Iron Age archipelago as an untouched no-man's land was a history politically convenient tacit agreement between the Finnish- and the Swedish-minded scholars. It can be seen as a part of the post-war demand for a common view of history. A geographical model of the present-day archaeological, historical and palaeoecological evidence of the arhcipelago coast is suggested.
A Touch of Red: Archaeological and Ethnographic Approaches to Interpreting Finnish Rock Paintings
Approximately 125 prehistoric rock paintings have been found in the modern territory of Finland. The paintings were done with red ochre and are almost without exception located on steep lakeshore cliffs associated with ancient water routes. Most of the sites are found in the central and eastern parts of the country, especially on the shores of Lakes Päijänne and Saimaa. Using shore displacement chronology, the art has been dated to ca. 5000 – 1500 BC. It was thus created mainly during the Stone Age and can be associated with the so-called ‘Comb Ware’ cultures of the Subneolithic period. The range of motifs is rather limited, consisting mainly of schematic depictions of stick-figure humans, elks, boats, handprints and geometric signs. Few paintings include any evidence of narrative scenes, making their interpretation a rather difficult task. In Finnish archaeological literature, the paintings have traditionally been associated with ’sympathetic’ hunting magic, or the belief that the ritual shooting of the painted animals would increase hunting luck. Some writers have also suggested totemistic and shamanistic readings of the art. This dissertation is a critical review of the interpretations offered of Finnish rock art and an exploration of the potentials of archaeological and ethnographic research in increasing our knowledge of its meaning. Methods used include ’formal’ approaches such as archaeological excavation, landscape analysis and the application of neuropsychological research to the study of rock art, as well as ethnographically ’informed’ approaches that make use of Saami and Baltic Finnish ethnohistorical sources in interpretation. In conclusion, it is argued that although North European hunter-gatherer rock art is often thought to lie beyond the reach of ‘informed’ knowledge, the exceptional continuity of prehistoric settlement in Finland validates the informed approach in the interpretation of Finnish rock paintings. The art can be confidently associated with shamanism of the kind still practiced by the Saami of Northern Fennoscandia in the historical period. Evidence of similar shamanistic practices, concepts and cosmology are also found in traditional Finnish-Karelian epic poetry. Previous readings of the art based on ‘hunting magic’ and totemism are rejected. Most of the paintings appear to depict experiences of falling into a trance, of shamanic metamorphosis and trance journeys, and of ‘spirit helper’ beings comparable to those employed by the Saami shaman (noaidi). As demonstrated by the results of an excavation at the rock painting of Valkeisaari, the painted cliffs themselves find a close parallel in the Saami cult of the 'sieidi', or sacred cliffs and boulders worshipped as expressing a supernatural power. Like the Saami, the prehistoric inhabitants of the Finnish Lake Region seem to have believed that certain cliffs were ’alive’ and inhabited by the spirit helpers of the shaman. The rock paintings can thus be associated with shamanic vision quests, and the making of ‘art’ with an effort to socialize the other members of the community, especially the ritual specialists, with trance visions. However, the paintings were not merely to be looked at. The red ochre handprints pressed on images of elks, as well as the fact that many paintings appear ’smeared’, indicate that they were also to be touched – perhaps in order to tap into the supernatural potency inherent in the cliff and in the paintings of spirit animals.
The Iron Age and the transition from the prehistory to the Middle Ages are complex issues in the research of the region of Uusimaa on the southern coast of Finland. In the course of multidisciplinary work over the past ten years, plenty of new data has been collected. This allows us to approach the area and the time period from various new points of view. The present multidisciplinary publication offers new perspectives from the viewpoint of archaeology, geology, history and palaeoecology from the Stone Age up to the early modern era, with a special focus on the Iron Age and the Middle Ages.
Colonization, Desertion and Entrenchment of Settlements in Western Nyland ca. 1300-1635 AD
Finland Proper (Sw. Egentliga Finland, Fi. Varsinais-Suomi) and Häme (Sw. Tavastland) formed the core area of Iron Age settlement in Finland. Monuments and sites dating back to the Late Iron Age or to the 11th or 12th centuries can be found from large areas of these two provinces. Less than two centuries later, during the early 14th century, large regions outside this core area were settled. One of the, Nyland (Fi. Uusimaa), was a thoroughly organised province already in the 1320's. Previous researchers have mostly thought that large and virtually unoccupied areas have been colonized during a rather short time period in the early Middle Ages. However, it is very difficult to explain sucha fast change in the settlement pattern in Southern Finland. Recent discoveries by Teija Alenius, Henrik Jansson and Tapani Tuovinen have challenged this common impression. In their articles they have concentrated especially on the development in the Late Iron Age. This article focuses on the Middle Ages and early modern period. The emergence of the privince of Nyland and the Castle Province of Raseborg will be discussed as well as the colonization, desertion and entrenchment of the settlements in the Western Nyland from the early 14th century to the 1630's.